Research on information technology - Teachers
last updated 18th July, 2001
Bialo and Sivan-Kichala (1996) synthesised 176 research reviews and reports in three key areas: (1) the effects of technology on student achievement; (2) the effects of technology on student self-concept and attitudes about learning; and (3) the effects of technology on interactions involving teachers and students in the learning environment. A significant positive effect on achievement was found. However the importance of developing students' critical literacies and information handling skills as a central factor in this achievement was established, as well as the need for instructional guidance in these skills. Aspects of the culture of the school that contributed to successful integration included the existence of a social network of computer-using teachers, organisational support from administration, and adequate resources.

Implications: Clearly the teacher-librarian would be a vital part of this network. One of the most powerful ways of strengthening the network would be in encouraging the teacher-librarian to work with the teachers, as together they would more effectively develop students' critical literacies and information skills as well as use technology.

Gregoire, Bracewell and Lafierre (1996) 'reviewed recent research on classroom integration of information and communication technologies, emphasising student learning. They found it increasingly clear that technology, in and of itself, does not directly change teaching or learning. The critical element is how technology is incorporated into instruction. The research demonstrated a number of desirable outcomes, but the clear theme of the paper is that these outcomes do not happen by chance. Diagnosing learning needs, intervening with appropriate development of information handling skills,and constant evaluation and feedback are essential components. This provides a clear mandate for teacher-librarians in term of their educational, information literacy roles.' (Todd)

Implications:  'The infusion of information and communication technologies creates a zone of uncertainty for both teachers and learners, engaging them in a process of risk and exploration for some time to come.' It would seem desirable to use the teacher-librarian to support teachers and learners in their  'zone of uncertainty' in the cooperative planning and teaching mode, rather than dilute the strength of this specialist in the school by separating them from the teacher and classroom program in an RFF staffing shortfall stop gap.

Haycock (1997) reported on four dissertations finding that 'teacher-librarians are actively involved in the planning and implementation process in schools with strong technology programs'.

Ringstaff, Yocam and Marsh (1996) reported on a long-term joint project by Apple Computers Inc. and the US National Science Foundation to establish teaching and learning practices which facilitate the integration of information technology into learning, and to develop a model of professional development. Among the factors were; opportunities to observe and reflect on a variety of teaching strategies, working in teams, and working more flexibly with timetables.

Implications: Instead of the teacher-librarian attempting to teach in isolation, (with minimal effect according to the research), when skills are developed in context, teachers can observe teaching strategies that the teacher-librarian has had the opportunity to devise as a specialist. Classroom teachers learning and implementing new teaching and learning practices will have a more positive effect than a teacher-librarian 'doing' isolated 'lessons'.


Conclusion Factors that support effective integration of technology in educational programs include:
Research on information technology - Students

Todd has reported on research findings in students' electronic information seeking (2000, 2001):

Locating information: 

High levels of information overload; inability to manage, reduce large volumes of information. Atkin (1998); Watson (1999)
Failure to retrieve documents based on aboutness; formulating ineffective search queries; failure to utilize Boolean operators. Bilal & Watson (1998); McNicholas & Todd (1996); Todd (2000)
Insecurity and uncertainty when searching. Kuhlthau (1991); McNicholas & Todd (1996); Watson (1999)
Problems working with search engines. McNicholas & Todd (1996); Kafai & Bates (1997)
Younger students  uncritical of web information; difficulty in building a search strategy. Kafai and Bates (1994)
Tendency to conduct simple searches, crafting poor searches; considerable guessing of appropriate terms. Hertzberg & Rudner (1997); Nims & Rich (1998)
High expectation of the technology's ability to make up for poor searching techniques. Nims & Rich (1998)
Absence of search strategies; ineffective search strategies; inappropriately favoured visual cues; navigational difficulties; examining only first screens of most sites. Fidel (1999)
Preferred browsing to systematic, analytic-based strategies. Schacter, Hung & Dorr (1998)
Poor management of research process; limited use of search features; limited patience and quickly terminated searches; decreased motivation with slow load time; poor judging of quality and relevance. Hirsch (1999, 1997)
Median time searching 5-6 minutes; satisfied with any somewhat - relevant hit; nly two or three inquiries per search; very small number of citations examined (5-6); aborting searches quickly. Hertzberg & Rudner (1997)
Selecting information: 
Confusion, and frustration. Major coping strategies included deliberate omission, broad and quick selections based on superficial analysis, deliberately accepting errors, getting someone else to do the work. Atkin (1998)
Not searching critically and evaluatively; limited use of thesaurus. Bilal & Watson (1998); Hirsch (1999)
Inability to judge quality of information. McNicholas & Todd (1996); Schacter, Hung & Dorr (1998); Hirsch (1999)
Inability to question the accuracy of web information. Watson (1999)
Unable to judge relevance of information. McNicholas & Todd (1996); Wallace & Kuperman (1997); Hirsch (1999)
Often inappropriately favoring visual cues; minimalist behaviour -- made quick decisions at all stages of search process; looked at pictures rather than textual information as signs of relevance; use of "landmarks" rather than in-depth critical analysis of sites to judge relevance and quality. Fidel (1999)
Organising information: 
Time management issues, workload management, meeting deadlines. McNicholas & Todd (1996)
Willing to construct answer on limited information. Hertzberg & Rudner (1997)
Tendency to plagiarize. McNicholas & Todd (1996)


 Conclusion

 Students have not exhibited a competence in coping with electronic information seeking. Intuitivenness, ease, certainty, and success are highly questionable, highlighting significant learning dilemmas in this area. Todd 2001

Implications

Now, more than ever, the separation of the teacher-librarian from classroom teachers and the restriction of their meaningful involvement in teaching and learning programs has dire consequences. At the very time when the teacher-librarian's specialist expertise could support the government's program of placing computers in schools and providing professional development, a large number of them are stuck in the time warp of the seventies and hampered by the budgetary concerns of the eighties. In schools where the teacher is able to take their class to the library, all of the above happens naturally and easily. In an ongoing dialogue they discuss learning needs with the teacher-librarian. The teacher-librarian models strategies, and teacher has support for part of their 'zone of uncertainty'. Part of the necessary network is already in place. The information skills of the students are developed as instruction can take place in context, at the time of need, and a variety of learning experiences can be provided to supplement the classroom experiences. As teacher-librarians are more involved in the class program, they are better able to provide relevant services. Teachers need support; that is clear. Teacher-librarians are well placed to provide a critical part of that support. This can only happen if the two are able to work together.
 

References

ATKIN, L. Information overload and children: A survey of Texas elementary school students. School Library Media Quarterly Online. 1, 1998.

BIALO, E. & SIVIN-KACHALA (1996). 'The effectiveness of technology in schools: a summary of recent research'. School Library Media Quarterly. Fall, 51-57.

BILAL, D. & WATSON, J. Children's paperless projects: Inspiring research via the Web. Amsterdam: 64th IFLA General Conference August 16 -- 21, 1998. Available at http://www.ifla.org/IV/ifla64/009-131e.htm

BILAL, D. Children's use of Yahoologans! Web Search Engine: 1. Cognitive, physical and affective behaviors on fact-based search tasks. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 51(7), 2000. 646-665.

FIDEL, R. et al. A visit to the information mall: Web searching behavior of high school students. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 50(1), 1999, 24-37.

GREGOIRE, R., Bracewell, R. & LAFERRIERE. T. The contribution of new technologies to learning and teaching in elementary and secondary schools - documentary  review. Laval University and McGill University. 1996

HAYCOCK, K. What works: Research about teaching and learning through the school's library resource center. Vancouver: Rockland Press, 1992.

HAYCOCK, K  'Collaboration, leadership and technology.' Teacher Librarian Magazine: What works; Research findings

HERTZBERG, S. & RUDNER, L. The quality of searchers' searches of the ERIC database. Education Policy Analysis Archives. 7(25), August. Available at: http://epaa.asu.edu/

HIRSH, S. Children's relevance criteria and information seeking on electronic resources. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 50(14), 1999, 1265-1283.

HIRSH, S. How do children find information on different types of tasks? Children's use of the science library catalog. Library Trends. 45(4), Spring, 1997, 725-745.

KAFAI, Y. and BATES, M. Internet Web-searching instruction in the elementary classroom: Building a foundation for information literacy. School Library Media Quarterly. Winter, 1997, 103-111.

KUHLTHAU, C. Inside the search process: Information seeking from the user's perspective. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 42(5), 1991, 361-371..

LAZONDER, A., BIEMANS, H. & WOPEREIS, I. Differences between novice and experienced users in searching information on the World Wide Web. Journal of the American society for Information science. 51(6), 2000. 576-581.

MCNICHOLAS, C. & TODD, R. New kids on the box: is it worth the Investment. Scan, 15(4), November 1996, 40-42.

NIMS, M. & RICH, L. How successfully do users search the web. College and Research Library News. 1998, 155-158.

POWERFUL PARTNERSHIPS: A Shared Responsibility for Learning: A Joint Report. American Association for Higher Education, American College Personnel Association; National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, 1999. Available at: http://www.aahe.org/assessment/tsk_frce.htm

SCHACTER J., CHUNG, G. & DORR, A. Children's internet searching on complex problems: performance and process analysis. Journal of the American Society for Information Science. 49, 1998, 840-849.

TODD, R. 'From net surfers to net seekers: the www, critical literacies and learning outcomes'. In: Education for All: Culture, Reading and Information. Selected Papers. Edited by S. Shoham &. M. Yitzhaki. 27th International Conference of the International association of School Librarianship, Ramat-Gan, Israel, July 5-10, 1998. Tel Aviv: Bar-Ilan University

TODD, Ross Literacies and the WWW: collaboration critical. SLAV Conference address. 2000  http://www.slav.schools.net.au/

TODD, R. Reconceptualising the Search Process in Electronic Environments. A discussion paper for Department of Education and Training Virtual Conference, 1999. Available at http://www.dse.nsw.edu.au/staff/F1.0/F1.8/teaching/3.htm

TODD, Ross 'Research columns' Scan NSW Department of Education and Training

TODD, R. 'Transitions for preferred futures of school libraries.' Keynote paper; Virtual conference session. IASL Conference 2001 http://www.iasl-slo.org/virtualpaper2001.html

WALLACE, R. & KUPERMAN, J. On-line search in the science classroom. Benefits and possibilities. Paper presented at AERA, Chicago, 1997. http://mydl.soe.umich.edu/papers/online_search.pdf

WATSON, J.S. Students and the World Wide Web: Issues of Confidence and Competence. In: Lighthall, L. and Howe, E. (Eds). Unleash the Power: Knowledge -- Technology -- Diversity. Papers presented at the Third International Forum on Research in School Librarianship. Seattle: International Association of School Librarianship, 1999, 191-200.

NSW Teacher-Librarians   |   RFF Position paper